Skill and Technology in Modern Warfare
Ag S Lt Tauhid Ahmed (E) BN
Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering Technology
[email protected]
What place does skill and technology play in determining the outcome of modern war? Is new technology—such as advanced command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (C4ISR)—significant enough to warrant scaling back training to acquire it? If something must be cut, is the Nation better served by older equipment and highly-trained troops, or better equipment but reduced skills and readiness for at least part of the force?
Such questions are increasingly critical as defence budgets decline and more people come to believe that unusual technological changes are imminent. Understanding how skill and technology interact is tough anytime, but it is unavoidable today to ensure sound decisions. Some might argue that underemphasizing modernization during a revolution in military affairs can enable a potential enemy that aggressively takes advantage of technology to leapfrog over a conservative military and present it with disaster in the field or irrelevance with the advent of new threats. But the other side of that coin is the argument that underemphasizing skill makes it impossible to exploit technology—or worse, mistakes made by information- overloaded, undertrained forces can expose even a radically modernized military to sudden heavy losses on a lethal 21st century battlefield.
Unfortunately, the available decision making tools are not equal to such questions. Current models focus almost exclusively on the quality, number, and types of weapons. Warfare is treated as a physics problem in which superior weapons carry the day. The skills, operational concepts, and organizational structures of the combatants cannot be evaluated because they are not configured. Moreover, the improved generation of models presently under development will still be driven by technology. They focus on information technologies in the form of C4ISR as both enablers and multipliers of weapon technologies. But they will share the inabilities of their predecessors to portray the effects of skill. This is significant: analytical tools that ignore skill cannot be much help in identifying the right balance between skill and modernization in the U.S. defence program.
In fact, current models may not even be helpful in identifying the right systems to develop with the funds which are available to modernize. Evidence is mounting that the interaction between technology and user skills and methods profoundly influences combat outcomes. If this interaction is ignored, the Department of Defence risks profound errors in choosing systems. Most combat models assume perfect skills on the part of fighting forces and their commanders: gunners score hits with probabilities computed on test ranges and leaders never misinterpret orders. No matter how simple or complex the tactical situation, new weapons must be employed. No matter how the targets might actually behave under fire, most current models simply assume perfect skills on all sides and compute outcomes accordingly. Can one assume that systems which function well in a perfect world will work in the same fashion in the world of real people, both our own and that of an enemy? If skill and technology do interact, that assumption is wrong—and the results of using methods that ignore this interaction could lead us to choose the wrong weapons for the real world in which the Armed Forces will have to fight.
Now I will discuss about how technology can be applied in C4ISR to improve defence skills. It consists of command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance. All are vital for them who do not want to lose a battle.
Command
A command in military terminology is an organisational unit for which the individual in Military command is responsible. A Commander will normally be specifically appointed to the role in order to provide a legal framework for the authority bestowed. Naval and military officers have legal authority by virtue of their officer's commission, however the specific responsibilities and privileges of command are derived from the publication of appointment.
The United States Department of Defence defines command as follows:
Team SPAWAR supports over 150 programs managed by the Program Executive Office for Command, Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence (PEO C4I), as well as the programs of PEO for Enterprise Information Systems (PEO EIS) and PEO Space Systems. PEO EIS and PEO
Space Systems are located in the greater Washington, D.C. area. SPAWAR Systems Centre Atlantic, an echelon III organization, is located in Charleston, SC, and also includes facilities in Norfolk, VA, New Orleans and Stuttgart, Germany. SPAWAR Systems Centre Pacific is located in San Diego, and includes facilities in Japan, Guam and Hawaii. SPAWAR designs, develops and deploys advanced communications and information capabilities. It delivers solutions that give the Navy, joint and coalition forces the winning edge, from strategic-level decision makers to tactical-level operators. SPAWAR employs over 12,000 professionals located around the world and close to the Naval fleet.
SPAWAR provides systems engineering and technical support for the development, delivery and sustainment of interoperable and effective C4ISR (command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), business information technology and space capabilities in the interest of national defence. These products and services transform ships, aircraft and vehicles from individual platforms into integrated battle forces, enhancing informational awareness among Navy, Marine, joint forces, federal agencies and international allies. As the Navy’s technical lead for C4ISR, SPAWAR provides the hardware and software to connect assets at sea, on land and in the air. This types of technology can make a big difference between two fighting nations.
Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering Technology
[email protected]
What place does skill and technology play in determining the outcome of modern war? Is new technology—such as advanced command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (C4ISR)—significant enough to warrant scaling back training to acquire it? If something must be cut, is the Nation better served by older equipment and highly-trained troops, or better equipment but reduced skills and readiness for at least part of the force?
Such questions are increasingly critical as defence budgets decline and more people come to believe that unusual technological changes are imminent. Understanding how skill and technology interact is tough anytime, but it is unavoidable today to ensure sound decisions. Some might argue that underemphasizing modernization during a revolution in military affairs can enable a potential enemy that aggressively takes advantage of technology to leapfrog over a conservative military and present it with disaster in the field or irrelevance with the advent of new threats. But the other side of that coin is the argument that underemphasizing skill makes it impossible to exploit technology—or worse, mistakes made by information- overloaded, undertrained forces can expose even a radically modernized military to sudden heavy losses on a lethal 21st century battlefield.
Unfortunately, the available decision making tools are not equal to such questions. Current models focus almost exclusively on the quality, number, and types of weapons. Warfare is treated as a physics problem in which superior weapons carry the day. The skills, operational concepts, and organizational structures of the combatants cannot be evaluated because they are not configured. Moreover, the improved generation of models presently under development will still be driven by technology. They focus on information technologies in the form of C4ISR as both enablers and multipliers of weapon technologies. But they will share the inabilities of their predecessors to portray the effects of skill. This is significant: analytical tools that ignore skill cannot be much help in identifying the right balance between skill and modernization in the U.S. defence program.
In fact, current models may not even be helpful in identifying the right systems to develop with the funds which are available to modernize. Evidence is mounting that the interaction between technology and user skills and methods profoundly influences combat outcomes. If this interaction is ignored, the Department of Defence risks profound errors in choosing systems. Most combat models assume perfect skills on the part of fighting forces and their commanders: gunners score hits with probabilities computed on test ranges and leaders never misinterpret orders. No matter how simple or complex the tactical situation, new weapons must be employed. No matter how the targets might actually behave under fire, most current models simply assume perfect skills on all sides and compute outcomes accordingly. Can one assume that systems which function well in a perfect world will work in the same fashion in the world of real people, both our own and that of an enemy? If skill and technology do interact, that assumption is wrong—and the results of using methods that ignore this interaction could lead us to choose the wrong weapons for the real world in which the Armed Forces will have to fight.
Now I will discuss about how technology can be applied in C4ISR to improve defence skills. It consists of command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance. All are vital for them who do not want to lose a battle.
Command
A command in military terminology is an organisational unit for which the individual in Military command is responsible. A Commander will normally be specifically appointed to the role in order to provide a legal framework for the authority bestowed. Naval and military officers have legal authority by virtue of their officer's commission, however the specific responsibilities and privileges of command are derived from the publication of appointment.
The United States Department of Defence defines command as follows:
- (DOD) 1. The authority that a commander in the armed forces lawfully exercises over subordinates by virtue of rank or assignment. Command includes the authority and responsibility for effectively using available resources and for planning the employment of, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling military forces for the accomplishment of assigned missions. It also includes responsibility for health, welfare, morale, and discipline of assigned personnel.
- (DOD) 2. An order given by a commander; that is, the will of the commander expressed for the purpose of bringing about a particular action.
- (DOD) 3. A unit or units, an organization, or an area under the command of one individual.
Team SPAWAR supports over 150 programs managed by the Program Executive Office for Command, Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence (PEO C4I), as well as the programs of PEO for Enterprise Information Systems (PEO EIS) and PEO Space Systems. PEO EIS and PEO
Space Systems are located in the greater Washington, D.C. area. SPAWAR Systems Centre Atlantic, an echelon III organization, is located in Charleston, SC, and also includes facilities in Norfolk, VA, New Orleans and Stuttgart, Germany. SPAWAR Systems Centre Pacific is located in San Diego, and includes facilities in Japan, Guam and Hawaii. SPAWAR designs, develops and deploys advanced communications and information capabilities. It delivers solutions that give the Navy, joint and coalition forces the winning edge, from strategic-level decision makers to tactical-level operators. SPAWAR employs over 12,000 professionals located around the world and close to the Naval fleet.
SPAWAR provides systems engineering and technical support for the development, delivery and sustainment of interoperable and effective C4ISR (command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), business information technology and space capabilities in the interest of national defence. These products and services transform ships, aircraft and vehicles from individual platforms into integrated battle forces, enhancing informational awareness among Navy, Marine, joint forces, federal agencies and international allies. As the Navy’s technical lead for C4ISR, SPAWAR provides the hardware and software to connect assets at sea, on land and in the air. This types of technology can make a big difference between two fighting nations.
Control
You have to gain control over battle field ,your units . If cannot control them in right way. There may be disaster. Earlier units were only manually operated. But in modern era of technology now there are unmanned vehicles land and air , automated missiles and torpedo. In sea now the ships are controlled by many automated systems. Such as fire control system , engine control system and she can manoeuver on her own and defend herself. In air units now a pilot is not a must. The
UAV (unmanned air vehicle) is now controlled from ground but in coming days they will be fully automated. This goes unit control but the control of battle field is also very important. To execute your command on your units to control the way of battle proper communication is first and foremost requirement.
You have to gain control over battle field ,your units . If cannot control them in right way. There may be disaster. Earlier units were only manually operated. But in modern era of technology now there are unmanned vehicles land and air , automated missiles and torpedo. In sea now the ships are controlled by many automated systems. Such as fire control system , engine control system and she can manoeuver on her own and defend herself. In air units now a pilot is not a must. The
UAV (unmanned air vehicle) is now controlled from ground but in coming days they will be fully automated. This goes unit control but the control of battle field is also very important. To execute your command on your units to control the way of battle proper communication is first and foremost requirement.
Communication
From the earlier age of mankind communication is playing vital role on warfare. Who are having better communication is always getting advantage. Now this sector is getting the highest interest in modern warfare. Because this is the medium of commander and controller to understand each other in the battle field. Many pieces of military communications equipment are built to encrypt and decode transmissions and survive rough treatment in hostile climates. They use many frequencies to send signals to other radios and to satellites.
Military communications are activities, equipment, techniques and tactics used by the military in some of the most hostile areas of the earth not only geographically but also from the point of view of the conditions of operations and equipment functionality like in battle fields, on land, underwater, air and whatever other conditions one can encounter. Military communications includes Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence which is also known as the C3I model. The Command here refers to the communication with the Highest Command in the country.
From the earlier age of mankind communication is playing vital role on warfare. Who are having better communication is always getting advantage. Now this sector is getting the highest interest in modern warfare. Because this is the medium of commander and controller to understand each other in the battle field. Many pieces of military communications equipment are built to encrypt and decode transmissions and survive rough treatment in hostile climates. They use many frequencies to send signals to other radios and to satellites.
Military communications are activities, equipment, techniques and tactics used by the military in some of the most hostile areas of the earth not only geographically but also from the point of view of the conditions of operations and equipment functionality like in battle fields, on land, underwater, air and whatever other conditions one can encounter. Military communications includes Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence which is also known as the C3I model. The Command here refers to the communication with the Highest Command in the country.
The first military communications tool was the communication automobile designed by the Soviet Union in 1934. The basics of the communications in the beginning was the sending and receiving of signals – which were encoded so that the enemy would not be able to get hold of any top secret communication. Then the advent of distinctive signals which lead to the formation of the Signal Corps, this corp., specialised in tactics of military communications. They evolved into a distinctive occupation where the signaller became a highly technical job where they dealt with all available communications methods including the civil methods.
In the modern world, most nations attempt to minimize the risk of war caused by miscommunication or inadequate communication by pushing the limits of communication technology and systems. As a result military communication is more intense, complicated, and often motivates the development of advanced technology for remote systems such as satellites and aircraft, both manned and unmanned, as well as computers. Computers and their varied applications have revolutionized military communications. Fortunately military communication does not always merely facilitate warfare, but often supports intelligence gathering and communication between adversaries, and thus sometimes prevents war.
There are 6 categories of military communications, the alert measurement systems, cryptography, military radio systems, nuclear command control and the signal corps. Another new concept is network-centric warfare.
The alert measurement systems – these are various state of alert or readiness for the armed forces used world over – be it a state of war, terrorism or military attack against a state. They are known by different acronyms or example – DEFCON, INFOCON and REDCON in the US military communications and BIKINI states in the British protocol.
Cryptography is the study of methods of converting readable messages into guised unreadable information, unless one knows of the methods of decryption. This military communications method ensured that the messages reached the correct hands and eyes or ears. Nowadays digital cash, signatures, digital rights management and intellectual property rights and secure electronic commerce are its new purviews. It is also being used in computing, telecommunications and infrastructure.
There are close to 97 different categories of military communications by radio. To name a few are ACP-131, AN/ARC-164, AN/ARC-5, HWU transmitter, Hallicrafters SX-28, SCR-197, SCR-203, SCR-270 radar, etc.
In the modern world, most nations attempt to minimize the risk of war caused by miscommunication or inadequate communication by pushing the limits of communication technology and systems. As a result military communication is more intense, complicated, and often motivates the development of advanced technology for remote systems such as satellites and aircraft, both manned and unmanned, as well as computers. Computers and their varied applications have revolutionized military communications. Fortunately military communication does not always merely facilitate warfare, but often supports intelligence gathering and communication between adversaries, and thus sometimes prevents war.
There are 6 categories of military communications, the alert measurement systems, cryptography, military radio systems, nuclear command control and the signal corps. Another new concept is network-centric warfare.
The alert measurement systems – these are various state of alert or readiness for the armed forces used world over – be it a state of war, terrorism or military attack against a state. They are known by different acronyms or example – DEFCON, INFOCON and REDCON in the US military communications and BIKINI states in the British protocol.
Cryptography is the study of methods of converting readable messages into guised unreadable information, unless one knows of the methods of decryption. This military communications method ensured that the messages reached the correct hands and eyes or ears. Nowadays digital cash, signatures, digital rights management and intellectual property rights and secure electronic commerce are its new purviews. It is also being used in computing, telecommunications and infrastructure.
There are close to 97 different categories of military communications by radio. To name a few are ACP-131, AN/ARC-164, AN/ARC-5, HWU transmitter, Hallicrafters SX-28, SCR-197, SCR-203, SCR-270 radar, etc.
Computer
All the equipment, device and unit manned or unmanned used for command, control, communication, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance are now fully based on computer. Actually this is the heart of modern warfare. There are many types of small computers used in the military. Recently there has been an increase in the implementation of thin client technology in many applications that don't require full computing capability. Thin client technology reduces costs and eliminates some of the risks of placing more complex computers in rugged situations.
Embedded computers are being integrated into more applications. These computers are generally fixed-function computers that are robust and bring additional capabilities to machines or complex equipment.
Notebooks and laptops have become more rugged since the turn of the century, and more portable computers are being placed into war fighter's hands than ever before. A number of manufacturers are specializing in creating ultra-rugged notebooks for the military. Now, some of these advances created for the military are finding their way backward into the home and business markets.
Wireless communications technology has also improved in recent years. High-speed data transferral over secure, encrypted frequencies is considering a new standard for standard-security-level communications. The new wireless radio networking devices can establish a link between systems that could otherwise not physically communicate or be involved in command and control. Some thin clients and portable computers employ these recent advances.
The Armed Forces have many numerical designations for computers or other equipment, to guide the military buyer's choice of appropriate technology for their application. For instance, Mil-S-901D would indicate that the computer passed shock and vibration requirements of specific tests for Navy installation. Some of these tests are specific to application usage, such as barge explosion testing, which simulates a torpedo hit and subsequent high peak shock to a ship on which the computer is installed.
901D is divided into Grade A for "Items which are essential to the safety and continued combat capability of the ship" and Grade B for "items whose operation is not essential to the safety and combat capability of the ship but which could become a hazard to personnel, to Grade A items, of the ship as a whole as a result of exposure to shock".
In this way, a computer may have a rating of MIL-Std-901D Grade A, which would tell a buyer which shock tests the computer survived, what level of shock resistance the unit has, and that this piece of equipment will continue to normally operate in the event of a specific shock level.
Other MIL Standards and MIL Specs (Specifications) include testing for resistance to EMI/RFI bursts, environmental contaminants such as dust and gas, or temperature extremes.
The "gold standard" of testing for compliance with 901D is the Barge Test. A Barge Test is performed four times, each time placing 60lbs HBX-1 explosive 24 feet under water, starting at 40 feet away, then at 30, 25 and finally 20 feet. In addition, the tests are performed in a fore-and-aft orientation to simulate an explosion at the bow or stern of the ship and athwart ship to simulate an explosion by the side of the ship. A video of a barge test can be viewed.
Typically a military computer is much more robust than an industrial computer enclosure. There will be more structure inside to support the components, the plug-in cards will be individually supported and secured to assure they do not pop out of their sockets, the processor and heat sink will be secured, memory will be glued into their sockets, and so forth. This is to assure nothing moves during the shock events.
All the equipment, device and unit manned or unmanned used for command, control, communication, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance are now fully based on computer. Actually this is the heart of modern warfare. There are many types of small computers used in the military. Recently there has been an increase in the implementation of thin client technology in many applications that don't require full computing capability. Thin client technology reduces costs and eliminates some of the risks of placing more complex computers in rugged situations.
Embedded computers are being integrated into more applications. These computers are generally fixed-function computers that are robust and bring additional capabilities to machines or complex equipment.
Notebooks and laptops have become more rugged since the turn of the century, and more portable computers are being placed into war fighter's hands than ever before. A number of manufacturers are specializing in creating ultra-rugged notebooks for the military. Now, some of these advances created for the military are finding their way backward into the home and business markets.
Wireless communications technology has also improved in recent years. High-speed data transferral over secure, encrypted frequencies is considering a new standard for standard-security-level communications. The new wireless radio networking devices can establish a link between systems that could otherwise not physically communicate or be involved in command and control. Some thin clients and portable computers employ these recent advances.
The Armed Forces have many numerical designations for computers or other equipment, to guide the military buyer's choice of appropriate technology for their application. For instance, Mil-S-901D would indicate that the computer passed shock and vibration requirements of specific tests for Navy installation. Some of these tests are specific to application usage, such as barge explosion testing, which simulates a torpedo hit and subsequent high peak shock to a ship on which the computer is installed.
901D is divided into Grade A for "Items which are essential to the safety and continued combat capability of the ship" and Grade B for "items whose operation is not essential to the safety and combat capability of the ship but which could become a hazard to personnel, to Grade A items, of the ship as a whole as a result of exposure to shock".
In this way, a computer may have a rating of MIL-Std-901D Grade A, which would tell a buyer which shock tests the computer survived, what level of shock resistance the unit has, and that this piece of equipment will continue to normally operate in the event of a specific shock level.
Other MIL Standards and MIL Specs (Specifications) include testing for resistance to EMI/RFI bursts, environmental contaminants such as dust and gas, or temperature extremes.
The "gold standard" of testing for compliance with 901D is the Barge Test. A Barge Test is performed four times, each time placing 60lbs HBX-1 explosive 24 feet under water, starting at 40 feet away, then at 30, 25 and finally 20 feet. In addition, the tests are performed in a fore-and-aft orientation to simulate an explosion at the bow or stern of the ship and athwart ship to simulate an explosion by the side of the ship. A video of a barge test can be viewed.
Typically a military computer is much more robust than an industrial computer enclosure. There will be more structure inside to support the components, the plug-in cards will be individually supported and secured to assure they do not pop out of their sockets, the processor and heat sink will be secured, memory will be glued into their sockets, and so forth. This is to assure nothing moves during the shock events.
Intelligence
Military intelligence is a military discipline that exploits a number of information collection and analysis approaches to provide guidance and direction to commanders in support of their decisions. This is achieved by providing an assessment of available data from a wide range of sources, directed towards the commanders' mission requirements or responding to focused questions as part of the operational or campaign planning activity. In order to provide an informed analysis, the commander's information requirements are first identified. These information requirements are then incorporated into a process of intelligence collection, analysis and dissemination.
Areas of study may include the operational environment, hostile, friendly and neutral forces, the civilian population in an area of combat operations, and other, broader areas of interest. Intelligence activities are conducted at all levels, from tactical to strategic, in peacetime, the period of transition to war, and during a war itself.
You have to gather your information of your enemy and protect your vital information from enemy intelligence. Now in our era warfare is getting a fight of intelligence more than physical fight. If you can get some information by your intelligence it may send you clearly one step ahead. Spy satellites, UAV, some submarine may be used on this purpose. Most advanced technological equipment is used in this sector. To protect your important base from unwanted infiltration computerised security system are often used in military installation. If you can use your intelligence effectively the result will be on your side.
Military intelligence is a military discipline that exploits a number of information collection and analysis approaches to provide guidance and direction to commanders in support of their decisions. This is achieved by providing an assessment of available data from a wide range of sources, directed towards the commanders' mission requirements or responding to focused questions as part of the operational or campaign planning activity. In order to provide an informed analysis, the commander's information requirements are first identified. These information requirements are then incorporated into a process of intelligence collection, analysis and dissemination.
Areas of study may include the operational environment, hostile, friendly and neutral forces, the civilian population in an area of combat operations, and other, broader areas of interest. Intelligence activities are conducted at all levels, from tactical to strategic, in peacetime, the period of transition to war, and during a war itself.
You have to gather your information of your enemy and protect your vital information from enemy intelligence. Now in our era warfare is getting a fight of intelligence more than physical fight. If you can get some information by your intelligence it may send you clearly one step ahead. Spy satellites, UAV, some submarine may be used on this purpose. Most advanced technological equipment is used in this sector. To protect your important base from unwanted infiltration computerised security system are often used in military installation. If you can use your intelligence effectively the result will be on your side.
Surveillance
Surveillance is the monitoring of the behavior, activities, or other changing information, usually of people for the purpose of influencing, managing, directing, or protecting. Surveillance is therefore an ambiguous practice, sometimes creating positive effects, at other times negative. In war surveillance requires for detecting ,monitoring and tracking enemy movement in various way. Mainly it is done from air.
A surveillance aircraft is an aircraft used for surveillance — collecting information over time. They are operated by military forces and other government agencies in roles such as intelligence gathering, battlefield surveillance, airspace surveillance, observation (e.g. artillery spotting), border patrol and fishery protection. This article concentrates on aircraft used in those roles, rather than for traffic monitoring, law enforcement and similar activities.
Surveillance aircraft usually carry no armament, or only limited defensive armament. A surveillance aircraft does not necessarily require high-performance capability or stealth characteristics. It may be a modified civilian aircraft. Surveillance aircraft have also included moored balloons (e.g. TARS) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs).
It will give you accurate information on the base of information by intelligence. You can commence an attack on their position and can take necessary action to avoid enemies sudden attack.
Surveillance is the monitoring of the behavior, activities, or other changing information, usually of people for the purpose of influencing, managing, directing, or protecting. Surveillance is therefore an ambiguous practice, sometimes creating positive effects, at other times negative. In war surveillance requires for detecting ,monitoring and tracking enemy movement in various way. Mainly it is done from air.
A surveillance aircraft is an aircraft used for surveillance — collecting information over time. They are operated by military forces and other government agencies in roles such as intelligence gathering, battlefield surveillance, airspace surveillance, observation (e.g. artillery spotting), border patrol and fishery protection. This article concentrates on aircraft used in those roles, rather than for traffic monitoring, law enforcement and similar activities.
Surveillance aircraft usually carry no armament, or only limited defensive armament. A surveillance aircraft does not necessarily require high-performance capability or stealth characteristics. It may be a modified civilian aircraft. Surveillance aircraft have also included moored balloons (e.g. TARS) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs).
It will give you accurate information on the base of information by intelligence. You can commence an attack on their position and can take necessary action to avoid enemies sudden attack.
Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance is the military term for exploring beyond the area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about enemy forces or features of the environment. Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops (rangers, scouts, or military intelligence specialists), ships or submarines, manned/unmanned aircraft, satellites, or by setting up covert observation posts. Espionage normally is not reconnaissance, because reconnaissance is a military force's operating ahead of its main forces; spies are non-combatants operating behind enemy lines.
Aerial reconnaissance was mostly carried out by versions of standard fighters and bombers equipped with cameras. After World War II and during the Cold War, when the United States developed several dedicated reconnaissance designs, including the U-2 and the SR-71 to deal with the nuclear threat from the Soviet Union.
Today much of the strategic role has passed over to satellites the tactical role to unmanned aerial vehicles. This was proven by the successful use by Israel and by the Desert Storm operation by the United States.
A spy satellite (officially referred to as a reconnaissance satellite) is an Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications. These are essentially space telescopes that are pointed toward the Earth instead of toward the stars. The first generation type (i.e. Corona and Zenit) took photographs, then ejected canisters of photographic film, which would descend to earth.
Reconnaissance is the military term for exploring beyond the area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about enemy forces or features of the environment. Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops (rangers, scouts, or military intelligence specialists), ships or submarines, manned/unmanned aircraft, satellites, or by setting up covert observation posts. Espionage normally is not reconnaissance, because reconnaissance is a military force's operating ahead of its main forces; spies are non-combatants operating behind enemy lines.
Aerial reconnaissance was mostly carried out by versions of standard fighters and bombers equipped with cameras. After World War II and during the Cold War, when the United States developed several dedicated reconnaissance designs, including the U-2 and the SR-71 to deal with the nuclear threat from the Soviet Union.
Today much of the strategic role has passed over to satellites the tactical role to unmanned aerial vehicles. This was proven by the successful use by Israel and by the Desert Storm operation by the United States.
A spy satellite (officially referred to as a reconnaissance satellite) is an Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications. These are essentially space telescopes that are pointed toward the Earth instead of toward the stars. The first generation type (i.e. Corona and Zenit) took photographs, then ejected canisters of photographic film, which would descend to earth.
Corona capsules were retrieved in mid-air as they floated down on parachutes. Later spacecraft had digital imaging systems and downloaded the images via encrypted radio links.
In the United States, most information available is on programs that existed up to 1972. Some information about programs prior to that time is still classified, and a small trickle of information is available on subsequent missions.
Usually two kind of this systems are available nowadays; The first one is the private one which some US governmental organizations like CIA, White House, USSS, etc. has direct access to that system the second is a globalized system which past Allies and USSR created that and gave the power of that to other nations governors, even to some countries like North Korea, Iran, etc. to use them for top secret surveillance missions only on their own country.
A few up-to-date reconnaissance satellite images have been declassified on occasion, or leaked, as in the case of KH-11 photographs which were sent to Jane's Defence Weekly in 1985.
Force Restructuring
In this era the ancient structure of military force is incompatible. So restructuring of forces is a now a days issue. Many have argued for a major restructuring of the Armed Forces to transform them from direct fire ground capabilities toward a reliance on deep fires, precision strike, and the exploitation of dominant battlefield awareness to avoid the necessity for close combat. The hypothesis outlined in this article, on the other hand, suggests that such restructuring could be very risky. Sometimes it may be highly effective: against an unskilled, mistake prone enemy, such a mostly air- and deep strike oriented force would be the ideal solution. Against a skilled enemy better capable of limiting its exposure by tactical and technical countermeasures, however, such an imbalanced force would be gravely disadvantaged. By giving up direct-fire ground capability in exchange for more deep strike systems, it would be much weaker than our current forces against an enemy able to escape destruction at extreme range and close with our forces. Such a restructuring would thus strengthen the U.S. military mostly where it is already so strong as to be nearly beyond challenge (that is, against error-prone enemies) by creating weaknesses elsewhere. Unless it is certain that the Nation will never again face a skilled enemy, this approach could be dangerous.
Most force planning and joint campaign assessment methodologies focus on the numbers and technical characteristics of opposing weaponry. Many believe that such methods are ill suited to a revolution in military affairs based on information technologies and a more highly integrated joint systems of systems. Thus DOD embarked on a significant program to update models and correct these shortcomings. But even if these proposed changes do address C4ISR and joint precision strike in detail, the models will still risk serious error if they ignore the relationship between technology and skill. In fact, if the new models are focused on depicting new technology while overlooking the ways skilled and unskilled enemies differ in their vulnerability to such systems, they could leave the Armed Forces worse off analytically. To capture the dynamics of actual warfare, new methods must account for the crucial interaction between new technology and variations in the ways different enemies will actually use their capabilities.
Conclusion
While the task is not impossible, it will require a sustained, systematic analytic effort. The stakes are high. Although a proper understanding of cause and effect in warfare has always been important, the rapid pace of change in technology and geopolitics makes it even more so today. From budgeting, to total force policy, to force design, to weapon acquisition, the long-term effects from a tremendous range of decisions rely upon a full understanding of how current trade offs will affect likely outcomes of future wars. It is time to create the improved understanding necessary to cope with difficult choices. Making sound choices requires the best analytical methods, and an essential attribute of any new generation of models must be an appreciation of the way skill and technology interact to produce combat outcomes in the real world.
© 2014 by Tauhid Ahmed.